Chemistry Lab Report Water Hydration Introduction

Chemistry Lab Report Water Hydration Introduction: A hydrated crystal or hydrated occurs when water becomes tightly attracted to a metal salt base on it’s polarity. The water molecules maintain integrity as molecules, however they are considered to be part of the formula of the hydrate. When the hydrate metal salt crystal is heated, the attractions to the water are broken by the heat energy and the water escape from the crystal. After heating the salt crystal is called as anhydrous, which means without water. Many of the salt contain transition metals such as cobalt that is colorful (purple).Often the color of transition metal like cobalt’s color will change as a function of how many waters it is attracted to. Compounds containing water (H2O) of hydrated are written with water separate by a dot (. ). This (. ) means for hydrated metal salt there are how many number of moles of water bound to each mole of that metal salt. Research Question: The aim of this experiment is to calculate the number of moles of water bounded to each mole of cobalt chloride ( CoCl2. H2O). This cobalt chloride hydrated may be monohydrate with 1 mole of water attracted to cobalt chloride.It may be dihydrate, trihydrate, tetrahydrate or pentahydrate; your task is to determine which one you are given. Hypothesis: If cobalt chloride were heated until there is no further lose in weight, 6 moles of water would be lost from 1 mole of salt. Therefore it is predicted that there are 6 moles of water in this reaction. Materials (Apparatus): 1. 3 gram of cobalt chloride 2. Evaporating dish 3. Tongs to hold the evaporating dish 4. Ring stand 5. Iron ring 6. Clamp 7. Bunsen burner 8. Matches 9. 40. 20 g size of the crucible 10. Digital balance/ g 0. 01 11.Clay triangle 12. Gloss rod Procedure: 1. Place an empty crucible on digital balance by uncertainty of 0. 01g 2. Measure the size of the crucible without salt 3. Add 3 gram of cobalt chloride to the crucible 4. Measure the total size o f crucible containing cobalt chloride 5. Take the crucible containing salt, place it on the Bunsen burner by tongs. Place crucible on a clay triangle and iron ring to protect the crucible from falling. 6. Gently heat the crucible by Bunsen burner 7. Use a gloss rod to give a movement to cobalt chloride to crystalized. 8.Record time for salt crystallization 9. Stop heating when cobalt chloride crystalized 10. Wait for few second for crucible to cool down 11. Place and Measure the anhydrous crucible by digital balance 12. Using calculation find the number of moles in this reaction. CoCl2 . nH2O CoCl2 + nH2 Data Collection and Processing: Process| Observation during the experiment | Changes in color | As we started heating the crucible containing CoCl2. H2O , the color of the CoCl2 started to change from violet purple to dark purple and the blue in 6 minutes and it is because of water evaporation. Appearance of the salt during heating | After 3 to 5 minutes, as water was evaporating an d reaching its melting and boiling point, salt began to bubble. At the beginning of heating it was powdery solid then it changed to liquid and at last solid again. Volume of salt decreases because of lost of molecules. We waited for 10 minutes until it cooled down. | Calculations: Raw data collected Mass| Grams | Uncertainty /g  ±0. 01| Crucible| 42. 20 g| 0. 02 %| Pure H2O | 1. 36 g| 0. 73 %| Pure CoCl2| 1. 66 g | 0. 60 %| | | Total uncertainty | | | 0. 08 %|Find the masses: Crucible + CoCl2. H2O = 45. 23 g Anhydrous = 43. 86 g Mass of pure H2O = 45. 23 – 43. 28 = 1. 36 g Mass of pure CoCl2 = 3. 02 – 1. 36 = 1. 66 g Find the uncertainty: CoCl2 = 1. 66 = 0. 01 = 0. 60 % 100 x H2O = 1. 36 = 0. 01 = 0. 73 % 100 x Crucible = 42. 20 = 0. 01 = 0. 02 % 100 x Total uncertainty: 0. 02 % + 0. 60 % + 0. 73 % = 1. 3 % 100 = 1. 3 = 0. 08 % 6 x Find the percentage of water: % Water = weight of water in sample * 100 Original weight of sample % 45. 03 = 1. 36 *100 3. 02 Find the nu mber of moles: CoCl2 . H2O CoCl2 H2O 1. 661. 36 1. 66 * 18 n = 1. 36 * 130 29. 88 n = 176. 8 g 130 18 n n = 176. 8 / 29. 88 n = 6 moles CoCl2 . 6H2O CoCl2 +6H2O Conclusion: From this experiment, I investigated that my hypothesis is fairly accurate as I predicted. Therefore it is concluded that through empirical formula, the degree of hydration is hydrated CoCl2 was determined to a relative degree of accuracy. It is determined to be approximately 6 moles of water bonded with 1 mole of CoCl2 and giving: CoCl2 . 6H2O. Evaluation:Our experiment was fairly close as the ratio was 1:5. 9. However, the ratio achieved through this experiment was, while approximately accurate to the accepted literature value of 1: 6, not so precise tat this ratio could be assumed to anything greater or lesser than 1 significant figure. This anomaly can be explained by acknowledging some errors within the experimental process. While the determined degree of hydration was not perfect, and indeed to find the cur rent rather elaborate ratio a degree of rounding was still required, it was still reasonably accurate. Some errors can be: 1.Over heating of the hydrated cobalt chloride can result in burning the anhydrous compound of cobalt chloride, therefore contaminating it with oxygen and alerting the mass present in the crucible. This could lead to varying degrees of inaccuracy. 2. Base on the fact that cobalt chloride is hydrophilic means; it will absorb moisture from atmosphere. Therefore, the experiment should be conducted in a dry, well-aired lab to avoid as little absorption as possible. 3. In contrast to burning the anhydrous compound, the heating could have failed to completely remove all the water or revise it; it may over heated that also effect on the accuracy.Improvements: There are several ways to improve this experiment. The key improvement to this experiment would probably be to decrease the intensity with which flame is applied to the crucible. This reduces the possibility to re duce overheating, and increase the period of time spent dehydrating the sample to ensure a slower, more through and less intense dehydration. Another improvement can be using a lab, which has the suitable location for this experiment. At last, have a expert partner or teacher to tell u, when stop heating the crucible can improve the accuracy of constant mass to achieve.

The Lost Symbol Chapter 4-6

CHAPTER 4 The U.S. Capitol Building stands regally at the eastern end of the National Mall, on a raised plateau that city designer Pierre L'Enfant described as â€Å"a pedestal waiting for a monument.† The Capitol's massive footprint measures more than 750 feet in length and 350 feet deep. Housing more than sixteen acres of floor space, it contains an astonishing 541 rooms. The neoclassical architecture is meticulously designed to echo the grandeur of ancient Rome, whose ideals were the inspiration for America's founders in establishing the laws and culture of the new republic. The new security checkpoint for tourists entering the Capitol Building is located deep within the recently completed subterranean visitor center, beneath a magnificent glass skylight that frames the Capitol Dome. Newly hired security guard Alfonso Nunez carefully studied the male visitor now approaching his checkpoint. The man had a shaved head and had been lingering in the lobby, completing a phone call before entering the building. His right arm was in a sling, and he moved with a slight limp. He was wearing a tattered army-navy surplus coat, which, combined with his shaved head, made Nunez guess military. Those who had served in the U.S. armed forces were among the most common visitors to Washington. â€Å"Good evening, sir,† Nunez said, following the security protocol of verbally engaging any male visitor who entered alone. â€Å"Hello,† the visitor said, glancing around at the nearly deserted entry. â€Å"Quiet night.† â€Å"NFC play-offs,† Nunez replied. â€Å"Everyone's watching the Redskins tonight.† Nunez wished he were, too, but this was his first month on the job, and he'd drawn the short straw. â€Å"Metal objects in the dish, please.† As the visitor fumbled to empty the pockets of his long coat with his one working hand, Nunez watched him carefully. Human instinct made special allowances for the injured and handicapped, but it was an instinct Nunez had been trained to override. Nunez waited while the visitor removed from his pockets the usual assortment of loose change, keys, and a couple of cell phones. â€Å"Sprain?† Nunez asked, eyeing the man's injured hand, which appeared to be wrapped in a series of thick Ace bandages. The bald man nodded. â€Å"Slipped on the ice. A week ago. Still hurts like hell.† â€Å"Sorry to hear that. Walk through, please.† The visitor limped through the detector, and the machine buzzed in protest. The visitor frowned. â€Å"I was afraid of that. I'm wearing a ring under these bandages. My finger was too swollen to get it off, so the doctors wrapped right over it.† â€Å"No problem,† Nunez said. â€Å"I'll use the wand.† Nunez ran the metal-detection wand over the visitor's wrapped hand. As expected, the only metal he detected was a large lump on the man's injured ring finger. Nunez took his time rubbing the metal detector over every inch of the man's sling and finger. He knew his supervisor was probably monitoring him on the closed circuit in the building's security center, and Nunez needed this job. Always better to be cautious. He carefully slid the wand up inside the man's sling. The visitor winced in pain. â€Å"Sorry.† â€Å"It's okay,† the man said. â€Å"You can't be too careful these days.† â€Å"Ain't that the truth.† Nunez liked this guy. Strangely, that counted for a lot around here. Human instinct was America's first line of defense against terrorism. It was a proven fact that human intuition was a more accurate detector of danger than all the electronic gear in the world–the gift of fear, as one of their security reference books termed it. In this case, Nunez's instincts sensed nothing that caused him any fear. The only oddity that he noticed, now that they were standing so close, was that this tough-looking guy appeared to have used some kind of self-tanner or concealer makeup on his face. Whatever. Everyone hates to be pale in the winter. â€Å"You're fine,† Nunez said, completing his sweep and stowing the wand. â€Å"Thanks.† The man started collecting his belongings from the tray. As he did, Nunez noticed that the two fingers protruding from his bandage each bore a tattoo; the tip of his index finger bore the image of a crown, and the tip of his thumb bore that of a star. Seems everyone has tattoos these days, Nunez thought, although the pads of his fingertips seemed like painful spots to get them. â€Å"Those tats hurt?† The man glanced down at his fingertips and chuckled. â€Å"Less than you might think.† â€Å"Lucky,† Nunez said. â€Å"Mine hurt a lot. I got a mermaid on my back when I was in boot camp.† â€Å"A mermaid?† The bald man chuckled. â€Å"Yeah,† he said, feeling sheepish. â€Å"The mistakes we make in our youth.† â€Å"I hear you,† the bald man said. â€Å"I made a big mistake in my youth, too. Now I wake up with her every morning.† They both laughed as the man headed off. Child's play, Mal'akh thought as he moved past Nunez and up the escalator toward the Capitol Building. The entry had been easier than anticipated. Mal'akh's slouching posture and padded belly had hidden his true physique, while the makeup on his face and hands had hidden the tattoos that covered his body. The true genius, however, was the sling, which disguised the potent object Mal'akh was transporting into the building. A gift for the one man on earth who can help me obtain what I seek. CHAPTER 5 The world's largest and most technologically advanced museum is also one of the world's best- kept secrets. It houses more pieces than the Hermitage, the Vatican Museum, and the New York Metropolitan . . . combined. Yet despite its magnificent collection, few members of the public are ever invited inside its heavily guarded walls. Located at 4210 Silver Hill Road just outside of Washington, D.C., the museum is a massive zigzag-shaped edifice constructed of five interconnected pods–each pod larger than a football field. The building's bluish metal exterior barely hints at the strangeness within–a six-hundred- thousand-square-foot alien world that contains a â€Å"dead zone,† a â€Å"wet pod,† and more than twelve miles of storage cabinets. Tonight, scientist Katherine Solomon was feeling unsettled as she drove her white Volvo up to the building's main security gate. The guard smiled. â€Å"Not a football fan, Ms. Solomon?† He lowered the volume on the Redskins play-off pregame show. Katherine forced a tense smile. â€Å"It's Sunday night.† â€Å"Oh, that's right. Your meeting.† â€Å"Is he here yet?† she asked anxiously. He glanced down at his paperwork. â€Å"I don't see him on the log.† â€Å"I'm early.† Katherine gave a friendly wave and continued up the winding access road to her usual parking spot at the bottom of the small, two-tiered lot. She began collecting her things and gave herself a quick check in the rearview mirror–more out of force of habit than actual vanity. Katherine Solomon had been blessed with the resilient Mediterranean skin of her ancestry, and even at fifty years old she had a smooth olive complexion. She used almost no makeup and wore her thick black hair unstyled and down. Like her older brother, Peter, she had gray eyes and a slender, patrician elegance. You two might as well be twins, people often told them. Their father had succumbed to cancer when Katherine was only seven, and she had little memory of him. Her brother, eight years Katherine's senior and only fifteen when their father died, had begun his journey toward becoming the Solomon patriarch much sooner than anyone had ever dreamed. As expected, though, Peter had grown into the role with the dignity and strength befitting their family name. To this day, he still watched over Katherine as though they were just kids. Despite her brother's occasional prodding, and no shortage of suitors, Katherine had never married. Science had become her life partner, and her work had proven more fulfilling and exciting than any man could ever hope to be. Katherine had no regrets. Her field of choice–Noetic Science–had been virtually unknown when she first heard of it, but in recent years it had started opening new doors of understanding into the power of the human mind. Our untapped potential is truly shocking. Katherine's two books on Noetics had established her as a leader in this obscure field, but her most recent discoveries, when published, promised to make Noetic Science a topic of mainstream conversation around the world. Tonight, however, science was the last thing on her mind. Earlier in the day, she had received some truly upsetting information relating to her brother. I still can't believe it's true. She'd thought of nothing else all afternoon. A pattering of light rain drummed on her windshield, and Katherine quickly gathered her things to get inside. She was about to step out of her car when her cell phone rang. She checked the caller ID and inhaled deeply. Then she tucked her hair behind her ears and settled in to take the call. Six miles away, Mal'akh was moving through the corridors of the U.S. Capitol Building with a cell phone pressed to his ear. He waited patiently as the line rang. Finally, a woman's voice answered. â€Å"Yes?† â€Å"We need to meet again,† Mal'akh said. There was a long pause. â€Å"Is everything all right?† â€Å"I have new information,† Mal'akh said. â€Å"Tell me.† Mal'akh took a deep breath. â€Å"That which your brother believes is hidden in D.C. . . . ?† â€Å"Yes?† â€Å"It can be found.† Katherine Solomon sounded stunned. â€Å"You're telling me–it is real?† Mal'akh smiled to himself. â€Å"Sometimes a legend that endures for centuries . . . endures for a reason.† CHAPTER 6 Is this as close as you can get?† Robert Langdon felt a sudden wave of anxiety as his driver parked on First Street, a good quarter mile from the Capitol Building. â€Å"Afraid so,† the driver said. â€Å"Homeland Security. No vehicles near landmark buildings anymore. I'm sorry, sir.† Langdon checked his watch, startled to see it was already 6:50. A construction zone around the National Mall had slowed them down, and his lecture was to begin in ten minutes. â€Å"Weather's turning,† the driver said, hopping out and opening Langdon's door for him. â€Å"You'll want to hurry.† Langdon reached for his wallet to tip the driver, but the man waved him off. â€Å"Your host already added a very generous tip to the charge.† Typical Peter, Langdon thought, gathering his things. â€Å"Okay, thanks for the ride.† The first few raindrops began to fall as Langdon reached the top of the gracefully arched concourse that descended to the new â€Å"underground† visitors' entrance. The Capitol Visitor Center had been a costly and controversial project. Described as an underground city to rival parts of Disney World, this subterranean space reportedly provided over a half-million square feet of space for exhibits, restaurants, and meeting halls. Langdon had been looking forward to seeing it, although he hadn't anticipated quite this long a walk. The skies were threatening to open at any moment, and he broke into a jog, his loafers offering almost no traction on the wet cement. I dressed for a lecture, not a four-hundred-yard downhill dash through the rain! When he arrived at the bottom, he was breathless and panting. Langdon pushed through the revolving door, taking a moment in the foyer to catch his breath and brush off the rain. As he did, he raised his eyes to the newly completed space before him. Okay, I'm impressed. The Capitol Visitor Center was not at all what he had expected. Because the space was underground, Langdon had been apprehensive about passing through it. A childhood accident had left him stranded at the bottom of a deep well overnight, and Langdon now lived with an almost crippling aversion to enclosed spaces. But this underground space was . . . airy somehow. Light. Spacious. The ceiling was a vast expanse of glass with a series of dramatic light fixtures that threw a muted glow across the pearl-colored interior finishes. Normally, Langdon would have taken a full hour in here to admire the architecture, but with five minutes until showtime, he put his head down and dashed through the main hall toward the security checkpoint and escalators. Relax, he told himself. Peter knows you're on your way. The event won't start without you. At the security point, a young Hispanic guard chatted with him while Langdon emptied his pockets and removed his vintage watch. â€Å"Mickey Mouse?† the guard said, sounding mildly amused. Langdon nodded, accustomed to the comments. The collector's edition Mickey Mouse watch had been a gift from his parents on his ninth birthday. â€Å"I wear it to remind me to slow down and take life less seriously.† â€Å"I don't think it's working,† the guard said with a smile. â€Å"You look like you're in a serious hurry.† Langdon smiled and put his daybag through the X-ray machine. â€Å"Which way to the Statuary Hall?† The guard motioned toward the escalators. â€Å"You'll see the signs.† â€Å"Thanks.† Langdon grabbed his bag off the conveyor and hurried on. As the escalator ascended, Langdon took a deep breath and tried to gather his thoughts. He gazed up through the rain-speckled glass ceiling at the mountainous form of the illuminated Capitol Dome overhead. It was an astonishing building. High atop her roof, almost three hundred feet in the air, the Statue of Freedom peered out into the misty darkness like a ghostly sentinel. Langdon always found it ironic that the workers who hoisted each piece of the nineteen-and-a-half-foot bronze statue to her perch were slaves–a Capitol secret that seldom made the syllabi of high school history classes. This entire building, in fact, was a treasure trove of bizarre arcana that included a â€Å"killer bathtub† responsible for the pneumonic murder of Vice President Henry Wilson, a staircase with a permanent bloodstain over which an inordinate number of guests seemed to trip, and a sealed basement chamber in which workers in 1930 discovered General John Alexander Logan's long- deceased stuffed horse. No legends were as enduring, however, as the claims of thirteen different ghosts that haunted this building. The spirit of city designer Pierre L'Enfant frequently was reported wandering the halls, seeking payment of his bill, now two hundred years overdue. The ghost of a worker who fell from the Capitol Dome during construction was seen wandering the corridors with a tray of tools. And, of course, the most famous apparition of all, reported numerous times in the Capitol basement–an ephemeral black cat that prowled the substructure's eerie maze of narrow passageways and cubicles. Langdon stepped off the escalator and again checked his watch. Three minutes. He hurried down the wide corridor, following the signs toward the Statuary Hall and rehearsing his opening remarks in his head. Langdon had to admit that Peter's assistant had been correct; this lecture topic would be a perfect match for an event hosted in Washington, D.C., by a prominent Mason. It was no secret that D.C. had a rich Masonic history. The cornerstone of this very building had been laid in a full Masonic ritual by George Washington himself. This city had been conceived and designed by Master Masons–George Washington, Ben Franklin, and Pierre L'Enfant– powerful minds who adorned their new capital with Masonic symbolism, architecture, and art. Of course, people see in those symbols all kinds of crazy ideas. Many conspiracy theorists claimed the Masonic forefathers had concealed powerful secrets throughout Washington along with symbolic messages hidden in the city's layout of streets. Langdon never paid any attention. Misinformation about the Masons was so commonplace that even educated Harvard students seemed to have surprisingly warped conceptions about the brotherhood. Last year, a freshman had rushed wild-eyed into Langdon's classroom with a printout from the Web. It was a street map of D.C. on which certain streets had been highlighted to form various shapes–satanic pentacles, a Masonic compass and square, the head of Baphomet–proof apparently that the Masons who designed Washington, D.C., were involved in some kind of dark, mystical conspiracy. â€Å"Fun,† Langdon said, â€Å"but hardly convincing. If you draw enough intersecting lines on a map, you're bound to find all kinds of shapes.† â€Å"But this can't be coincidence!† the kid exclaimed. Langdon patiently showed the student that the same exact shapes could be formed on a street map of Detroit. The kid seemed sorely disappointed. â€Å"Don't be disheartened,† Langdon said. â€Å"Washington does have some incredible secrets . . . just none on this street map.† The young man perked up. â€Å"Secrets? Like what?† â€Å"Every spring I teach a course called Occult Symbols. I talk a lot about D.C. You should take the course.† â€Å"Occult symbols!† The freshman looked excited again. â€Å"So there are devil symbols in D.C.!† Langdon smiled. â€Å"Sorry, but the word occult, despite conjuring images of devil worship, actually means `hidden' or `obscured.' In times of religious oppression, knowledge that was counterdoctrinal had to be kept hidden or `occult,' and because the church felt threatened by this, they redefined anything `occult' as evil, and the prejudice survived.† â€Å"Oh.† The kid slumped. Nonetheless, that spring, Langdon spotted the freshman seated in the front row as five hundred students bustled into Harvard's Sanders Theatre, a hollow old lecture hall with creaking wooden benches. â€Å"Good morning, everybody,† Langdon shouted from the expansive stage. He turned on a slide projector, and an image materialized behind him. â€Å"As you're getting settled, how many of you recognize the building in this picture?† â€Å"U.S. Capitol!† dozens of voices called out in unison. â€Å"Washington, D.C.!† â€Å"Yes. There are nine million pounds of ironwork in that dome. An unparalleled feat of architectural ingenuity for the 1850s.† â€Å"Awesome!† somebody shouted. Langdon rolled his eyes, wishing somebody would ban that word. â€Å"Okay, and how many of you have ever been to Washington?† A scattering of hands went up. â€Å"So few?† Langdon feigned surprise. â€Å"And how many of you have been to Rome, Paris, Madrid, or London?† Almost all the hands in the room went up. As usual. One of the rites of passage for American college kids was a summer with a Eurorail ticket before the harsh reality of real life set in. â€Å"It appears many more of you have visited Europe than have visited your own capital. Why do you think that is?† â€Å"No drinking age in Europe!† someone in back shouted. Langdon smiled. â€Å"As if the drinking age here stops any of you?† Everyone laughed. It was the first day of school, and the students were taking longer than usual to get settled, shifting and creaking in their wooden pews. Langdon loved teaching in this hall because he always knew how engaged the students were simply by listening to how much they fidgeted in their pews. â€Å"Seriously,† Langdon said, â€Å"Washington, D.C., has some of the world's finest architecture, art, and symbolism. Why would you go overseas before visiting your own capital?† â€Å"Ancient stuff is cooler,† someone said. â€Å"And by ancient stuff,† Langdon clarified, â€Å"I assume you mean castles, crypts, temples, that sort of thing?† Their heads nodded in unison. â€Å"Okay. Now, what if I told you that Washington, D.C., has every one of those things? Castles, crypts, pyramids, temples . . . it's all there.† The creaking diminished. â€Å"My friends,† Langdon said, lowering his voice and moving to the front of the stage, â€Å"in the next hour, you will discover that our nation is overflowing with secrets and hidden history. And exactly as in Europe, all of the best secrets are hidden in plain view.† The wooden pews fell dead silent. Gotcha. Langdon dimmed the lights and called up his second slide. â€Å"Who can tell me what George Washington is doing here?† The slide was a famous mural depicting George Washington dressed in full Masonic regalia standing before an odd-looking contraption–a giant wooden tripod that supported a rope-and- pulley system from which was suspended a massive block of stone. A group of well-dressed onlookers stood around him. â€Å"Lifting that big block of stone?† someone ventured. Langdon said nothing, preferring that a student make the correction if possible. â€Å"Actually,† another student offered, â€Å"I think Washington is lowering the rock. He's wearing a Masonic costume. I've seen pictures of Masons laying cornerstones before. The ceremony always uses that tripod thing to lower the first stone.† â€Å"Excellent,† Langdon said. â€Å"The mural portrays the Father of Our Country using a tripod and pulley to lay the cornerstone of our Capitol Building on September 18, 1793, between the hours of eleven fifteen and twelve thirty.† Langdon paused, scanning the class. â€Å"Can anyone tell me the significance of that date and time?† Silence. â€Å"What if I told you that precise moment was chosen by three famous Masons–George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and Pierre L'Enfant, the primary architect for D.C.?† More silence. â€Å"Quite simply, the cornerstone was set at that date and time because, among other things, the auspicious Caput Draconis was in Virgo.† Everyone exchanged odd looks. â€Å"Hold on,† someone said. â€Å"You mean . . . like astrology?† â€Å"Exactly. Although a different astrology than we know today.† A hand went up. â€Å"You mean our Founding Fathers believed in astrology?† Langdon grinned. â€Å"Big-time. What would you say if I told you the city of Washington, D.C., has more astrological signs in its architecture than any other city in the world–zodiacs, star charts, cornerstones laid at precise astrological dates and times? More than half of the framers of our Constitution were Masons, men who strongly believed that the stars and fate were intertwined, men who paid close attention to the layout of the heavens as they structured their new world.† â€Å"But that whole thing about the Capitol cornerstone being laid while Caput Draconis was in Virgo–who cares? Can't that just be coincidence?† â€Å"An impressive coincidence considering that the cornerstones of the three structures that make up Federal Triangle–the Capitol, the White House, the Washington Monument–were all laid in different years but were carefully timed to occur under this exact same astrological condition.† Langdon's gaze was met by a room full of wide eyes. A number of heads dipped down as students began taking notes. A hand in back went up. â€Å"Why did they do that?† Langdon chuckled. â€Å"The answer to that is an entire semester's worth of material. If you're curious, you should take my mysticism course. Frankly, I don't think you guys are emotionally prepared to hear the answer.† â€Å"What?† the person shouted. â€Å"Try us!† Langdon made a show of considering it and then shook his head, toying with them. â€Å"Sorry, I can't do that. Some of you are only freshmen. I'm afraid it might blow your minds.† â€Å"Tell us!† everyone shouted. Langdon shrugged. â€Å"Perhaps you should join the Masons or Eastern Star and learn about it from the source.† â€Å"We can't get in,† a young man argued. â€Å"The Masons are like a supersecret society!† â€Å"Supersecret? Really?† Langdon remembered the large Masonic ring that his friend Peter Solomon wore proudly on his right hand. â€Å"Then why do Masons wear obvious Masonic rings, tie clips, or pins? Why are Masonic buildings clearly marked? Why are their meeting times in the newspaper?† Langdon smiled at all the puzzled faces. â€Å"My friends, the Masons are not a secret society . . . they are a society with secrets.† â€Å"Same thing,† someone muttered. â€Å"Is it?† Langdon challenged. â€Å"Would you consider Coca-Cola a secret society?† â€Å"Of course not,† the student said. â€Å"Well, what if you knocked on the door of corporate headquarters and asked for the recipe for Classic Coke?† â€Å"They'd never tell you.† â€Å"Exactly. In order to learn Coca-Cola's deepest secret, you would need to join the company, work for many years, prove you were trustworthy, and eventually rise to the upper echelons of the company, where that information might be shared with you. Then you would be sworn to secrecy.† â€Å"So you're saying Freemasonry is like a corporation?† â€Å"Only insofar as they have a strict hierarchy and they take secrecy very seriously.† â€Å"My uncle is a Mason,† a young woman piped up. â€Å"And my aunt hates it because he won't talk about it with her. She says Masonry is some kind of strange religion.† â€Å"A common misperception.† â€Å"It's not a religion?† â€Å"Give it the litmus test,† Langdon said. â€Å"Who here has taken Professor Witherspoon's comparative religion course?† Several hands went up. â€Å"Good. So tell me, what are the three prerequisites for an ideology to be considered a religion?† â€Å"ABC,† one woman offered. â€Å"Assure, Believe, Convert.† â€Å"Correct,† Langdon said. â€Å"Religions assure salvation; religions believe in a precise theology; and religions convert nonbelievers.† He paused. â€Å"Masonry, however, is batting zero for three. Masons make no promises of salvation; they have no specific theology; and they do not seek to convert you. In fact, within Masonic lodges, discussions of religion are prohibited.† â€Å"So . . . Masonry is anti religious?† â€Å"On the contrary. One of the prerequisites for becoming a Mason is that you must believe in a higher power. The difference between Masonic spirituality and organized religion is that the Masons do not impose a specific definition or name on a higher power. Rather than definitive theological identities like God, Allah, Buddha, or Jesus, the Masons use more general terms like Supreme Being or Great Architect of the Universe. This enables Masons of different faiths to gather together.† â€Å"Sounds a little far-out,† someone said. â€Å"Or, perhaps, refreshingly open-minded?† Langdon offered. â€Å"In this age when different cultures are killing each other over whose definition of God is better, one could say the Masonic tradition of tolerance and open-mindedness is commendable.† Langdon paced the stage. â€Å"Moreover, Masonry is open to men of all races, colors, and creeds, and provides a spiritual fraternity that does not discriminate in any way.† â€Å"Doesn't discriminate?† A member of the university's Women's Center stood up. â€Å"How many women are permitted to be Masons, Professor Langdon?† Langdon showed his palms in surrender. â€Å"A fair point. Freemasonry had its roots, traditionally, in the stone masons' guilds of Europe and was therefore a man's organization. Several hundred years ago, some say as early as 1703, a women's branch called Eastern Star was founded. They have more than a million members.† â€Å"Nonetheless,† the woman said, â€Å"Masonry is a powerful organization from which women are excluded.† Langdon was not sure how powerful the Masons really were anymore, and he was not going to go down that road; perceptions of the modern Masons ranged from their being a group of harmless old men who liked to play dress-up . . . all the way to an underground cabal of power brokers who ran the world. The truth, no doubt, was somewhere in the middle. â€Å"Professor Langdon,† called a young man with curly hair in the back row, â€Å"if Masonry is not a secret society, not a corporation, and not a religion, then what is it?† â€Å"Well, if you were to ask a Mason, he would offer the following definition: Masonry is a system of morality, veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols.† â€Å"Sounds to me like a euphemism for `freaky cult.' â€Å" â€Å"Freaky, you say?† â€Å"Hell yes!† the kid said, standing up. â€Å"I heard what they do inside those secret buildings! Weird candlelight rituals with coffins, and nooses, and drinking wine out of skulls. Now that's freaky!† Langdon scanned the class. â€Å"Does that sound freaky to anyone else?† â€Å"Yes!† they all chimed in. Langdon feigned a sad sigh. â€Å"Too bad. If that's too freaky for you, then I know you'll never want to join my cult.† Silence settled over the room. The student from the Women's Center looked uneasy. â€Å"You're in a cult?† Langdon nodded and lowered his voice to a conspiratorial whisper. â€Å"Don't tell anyone, but on the pagan day of the sun god Ra, I kneel at the foot of an ancient instrument of torture and consume ritualistic symbols of blood and flesh.† The class looked horrified. Langdon shrugged. â€Å"And if any of you care to join me, come to the Harvard chapel on Sunday, kneel beneath the crucifix, and take Holy Communion.† The classroom remained silent. Langdon winked. â€Å"Open your minds, my friends. We all fear what we do not understand.† The tolling of a clock began echoing through the Capitol corridors. Seven o'clock. Robert Langdon was now running. Talk about a dramatic entrance. Passing through the House Connecting Corridor, he spotted the entrance to the National Statuary Hall and headed straight for it. As he neared the door, he slowed to a nonchalant stroll and took several deep breaths. Buttoning his jacket, he lifted his chin ever so slightly and turned the corner just as the final chime sounded. Showtime. As Professor Robert Langdon strode into the National Statuary Hall, he raised his eyes and smiled warmly. An instant later, his smile evaporated. He stopped dead in his tracks. Something was very, very wrong.

An Opinion on the Interpretation of the Constitution

An Opinion on the Interpretation of the Constitution Question 1 The Framers of the Constitution chose a Federal system for several reasons. Possibly, the most justified reason would be that the framers knew that there would be threats posed to individuals freedom. As we all know, federalism includes that national and state governments have their own separate powers to enact laws. If government was not separated, it would be to powerful and would more than likely use that power unjustly. Therefore, with separation, this helps grant individuals a fairer legal system, which is why federalism was chosen amongst other systems. Some other systems would include: confederation, anarchy, and unitary state. In McCulloch v Maryland federal power was at the heart of the debate. The case took place in the year 1819 and was one of the first and most important cases known to the legal system. It was to determine if the United States government had the capability to create a bank in Maryland and if Maryland was able to tax the government for this decision. In the end, the Supreme court ruled that federal government has the ability to pass laws that are not expressed in the Constitution. This was significant to the federal government’s power over the states. This allocation was possible through the Necessary and Proper Clause listed in Article 1 Section 8 of the Constitution. New federalism is basically a philosophy that focuses on states rights. In its efforts it tries to transfer power that the federal government encompasses back to the states. The Devolution Revolution was started by the Reagan Administration due to past issues where the federal government was not adequate to make decisions. It was the efforts to slow down the power of the federal government and give back numerous powers and responsibilities back to the states. Since 1995, the United States has addressed issues of federalism by utilizing the principles of the Constitution, more specifically the power of the branches of government. What the Constitution claims about such powers should be the primary influence in federalism. Public policy of a state may differ from one to another. For example, some Florida laws may seem stupid to someone living in Pennsylvania. However, that state most likely imposed those laws for a specific reason. Federalism and Congressional powers are central to state or federal powers. If some form of agreement is not made on the part, there will be issues within that state. Public policy tries to enforce social laws that are generally unwritten, however, understood nonetheless. If these two powers cannot agree upon such social laws, then numerous issues will come of it. That is why, for example, all states must have a drinking age of 21, even if some states feel that this should be changed. It is agreed upon. I would not consider myself to be a federalist in todays times. That is, because I do not feel that states should unit and form a central authority. I feel this would cause more problems in the long run. The term federalist has changed increasingly since its origin to todays times, back then a federalist was an individual who supported the constitution and were committed to a much looser decentralized form of government. In today’s times, a federalist is simply someone who supports the unification of states as a central force. Liberals and Conservatives views of federalism differ from those of liberals and conservatives during the 18th and 19th century. During these times, the federalist was regarded with high respect and in high regard, however, today these views are not the same. Liberals and conservatives believe that big government ought to live up to their promises as well as have the citizens safety and best interest in mind. However, many discrepancies have arisen betwe en the government and their responsibilities to citizens, and many believe they have personal interest at heart. In the Wickard v. Filburn case, the Supreme court significantly increased the regulating authority of the federal government. Conservatives feel that it is our personal responsibility to provide ourselves with healthcare and believe in a limited form of government. However, liberals believe it is the governments duty to provide us with equality and to alleviate us of social ills. These two differ quite extensively, however, the liberals were more in favor of the rulings of Wickhard v. Filburn because it placed responsibility more so on the federal government rather than self. Federalism has both pros and cons associated with it. Some of the pros would include: protection against tyranny, diffusing power, more efficiency, and conflict management. Some of the cons associated with it include: advocated inequalities between states, blockage of Nationalist policies by the state, and racing to the bottom. In Chapter 3 of Faultlines it is debated as to whether states or national government should take lead in immigration reform. In my opinion, this duty should be granted by the national government. I feel that if states were granted such responsibilities, there would be little consistency in the matter. I think that it is the best interest of the national government to demise a plan of immigrant reform. In the end, consistency is key, it would be much simpler to have the national government handle such issues, since they have been the ones responsible for such issues historically. Question 2 The primary motives and assumptions of the framers of the constitution was to establish an effective government. One that was built for the people and would enable the nation to grow and change as well. It was to fix the issues known previously, and also had emphasis on core values such as liberty, equality, and democracy. They were under the assumption that the constitution would be built on such core beliefs and be a good representation of rights each American deserves. Some of the most important values built into the American political system of today are very similar to the values the founders believed in. In modern times, the political system is concerned with liberty, equality, and property. As we can see, the ideas of liberty and equality have remained the same from earlier times until more modern days. Democracy is the leading difference. The founders were more concerned with democracy within their political arena than individuals are today. I think the reason for this is bec ause many feel their opinions and votes do not matter. Not to mention that when voting, its generally the choice between the lesser of two evils. A constitutional democracy is a system within the government that ultimately has a very well-defined limitations set on political authorities. Constitutionalism is strict adherence to the principles within the constitution. Madison’s view of human nature affected his theory of government. Madison, as you presumably know, saw the wickedness in human instinct, yet in the meantime observed temperance too. He trusted that the legislature would be the genuine impression of the general population it spoke to and it must not fit in with the disasters of human instinct. Along these lines, consequently, his perspectives of human instinct influenced his hypothesis in government by constraining the energy of the legislature to anticipate defilement. His theory is represented in ideas of democracy because him as well as other framers wanted a republican democracy. Self-interest was also a vastly debated argument of these individuals as well. Economic conditions also impacted democracy sig nificantly as well. One major area of division at the time of the constitutional convention was between smaller and larger states. The smaller states felt that every state, regardless of size should have the same amount of congress representatives. However, the larger states felt that with having a larger population, they should be granted more representatives. It was resolved by having a singular house of congress, and representatives are based on population. With each state being granted at least one representative and each state was to have at least two senators no matter what its population was. There were three compromises that were necessary prior to ratifying the constitution. These included: Great Compromise (Connecticut compromise), the three-fifths compromise, and the trade compromise. Equality within the Constitution is found within the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments. The 13th is designated to abolish slavery. The 14th allowed freed slaves to be citizens of the United States. And lastly, the 15th amendment allowed the right to vote to any man of any race. Marbury v. Madison created judicial review in the government system. Judicial review is basically the power allocated to federal courts to proclaim legislative and executive acts unconstitutional. It was highly significant, and the constitution claimed it to be the supreme law of the land. This case was highly important when decided because it was actually the first Supreme court case to apply ideas of judicial review. It allowed federal courts to ultimately void any act of Congress that were in opposition to the constitution. It fully placed the constitutions ideas in place. The development of democracy was also influenced by this case. Individuals now had a checks and balances system. It added for a more democratic system. The implications of this within the political system is that congress and even the president can be unconstitutional, however, judicial review is the mediator of this. They will stop things that are unconstitutional. I feel that the constitution should be fundamentally changed. Some of the issues within that should be considered would be the first amendment and the second in my opinion. In recent times, the freedom of speech has been a very controversial issue. Whether it’s the instance of Roseanne or college students seeking safe space at universities. I feel that freedom of speech isn’t really free, because it oppresses many individuals. Another consideration would be the second amendment as well. Gun reform is certainly another largely controversial topic in today’s times. I think some changes need to be made on those parts as well. Also, it needs be more modernized with adding some of the issues we face today. For example, with science increasing significantly, we must place limitations within. Should we allow stem cell research and the ability to manipulate the characteristics of embryos. Question 3 In my opinion views of Breyers should be considered when interpreting the Constitution. Unlike Scalia, Breyer believes that there should be a living constitution approach. What that means is basically that there is a dynamic meaning within the pages of the constitution. Its basic claims are not stuck in the ideas of hundreds of years ago, rather concerned with modern times in such approaches. The constitution was written in the year 1787, that is nearly 231 years ago. As we all know, society, beliefs, and individual’s roles are quite different in modern times when compared to the year the constitution was written. Although, the constitution does provide a good outline, it is inadequate in being a valid representation of today’s society and therefore, is nothing but an outdated template of original value systems of society from the year of 1787. Do not get me wrong, this documents idea has held up quite well, however, as we change as a society, we need documentation that is dynamic and relevant to todays day and age. Which is why I feel that Breyers visions and assertions are most logical in such debates. No document can last forever, because no era is exactly the same. Advancements are always underway in order to improve society and life in general. The constitution is very much a living document and has the capacity to grow and be altered as it already has within the years. Numerous additions and underlying interpretations have already occurred from its earlier days. For instance, the framers discussed nothing specifically on same sex marriages. However, in 2015, the supreme court ruled same sex marriages as one of our civil rights. Civil rights were established in the constitution by the framers, however, it took deeper analyzation to understand that same sex marriages were in fact about equality and is a right that all individuals deserve. This is an example of an idea of a living constitution because it takes basic principles outlined in the constitution and applies more modernized interpretations of them. During the ages of the framers, same sex marriage was not a pressing issue, therefore, it was not directly addressed. Even the framers knew that this document was lacking some ideas and would need changed at one point or a nother. Although, they did make this document very difficult to alter, there have been some changes already made. I agree with Breyer that a living constitution should be in order, because the underlying ideas conceptualized by the framers are very rational and fair, however, dynamic ideas are a certainty with such a document as this. Scalia claimed that the living constitution will destroy the constitution. What is meant by this is that politics will evidently enter law. Therefore, this idea would be against same sex marriages since they are not exclusively discussed within the constitution. However, I feel that this approach is severely lacking. There are several things not exclusively discussed in the constitution such as stem cell research and other scientifically fueled ideas, however, if we fail to allow such, our society will surely not advance. We simply are in need of a document that encompasses the founders ideas, but also allows for alternation and analysis.

Anthropological perspectives on Peace and Conflict Studies Research Paper

Anthropological perspectives on Peace and Conflict Studies - Research Paper Example It explores how people of diverse appearance, different cultures and mutually incomprehensible languages live together peacefully. This paper will give an analysis of the possible causes of the Israeli/Palestinian conflict as well as solutions for the conflict from anthropological point of view. Introduction The conflict between Palestinians and Israelis is a struggle that has been going on since the mid of the 20th century. Within both Palestinian and Israeli societies, this conflict has generated a wide range of opinions and views. This underscores the deep divisions existing between Palestinians and Israelis and also within either society. This conflict has caused a high level of violence for almost the whole duration. Paramilitary groups, regular armies, terror cells and individuals have been conducting fights. Besides the military, casualties have also come from civilian population with a lot of fatalities on both sides. It has been noted that prominent global actors have engage d themselves in the conflict (Gelvin 15). Anthropology gives a scientific basis for handling crucial dilemma in today’s world. It explores how people of diverse appearance, different cultures and mutually incomprehensible languages live together peacefully. Anthropology calls for no naturalization of all human constructions and recognition of culture’s arbitrariness including arbitrariness of power (Lewellen 17). This paper will give an analysis of the possible causes of the Israeli/Palestinian conflict as well as solutions for the conflict from anthropological point of view. Causes of Israeli-Palestinian Conflict It has often been said that the conflict between Palestinians and Israelis is about land. This claim is designed to counter the usual misconception suggesting that the Israelis and Palestinians have a historical clash that dates back to hundreds of years as a result of inherent cultural and religious contempt for each other. The lands claims play a vital role in both sides of animosities, but it fails to give the full story (Harms 60). The more complex and more accurate explanation for this conflict is that it is about the emerging relationship between two groups of people living in the same area, particularly regarding the emergence of firstly, Jewish nationalism (Zionism) and secondly, Palestinian nationalism, which occurred between the late 19th century and early 20th century. The definitions and development of both nationalisms are the basis of the conflict. The emergence of Zionism was not in reaction to Muslims, Palestinians or Arabs, but in response to perceived and real anti-Semitism in Europe and Russia. Although the decision to make Israel a Zionist state location was founded on religious factors, this was largely untrue regarding the decision to establish a Zionist state. When Zionists came to Israel, they did not intend to evict the native population although they were oblivious to it to a great extent. The Zionist movement encouraged immigration to Israel using the slogan, "A land without a people for a people without a land." On reaching Israel, they sought land and believed this maxim, and in this way, they had already sowed the seed of the conflict. Mostly, Zionist settlers showed no animosity against the indigenous population. They never removed Palestinians from their land using force, but they had a simple economic strategy of purchasing land from Arab tribes that represented the indigenous Palestinian inhabitants. This resulted into the Palestinians identifying

Analysis and critique paper Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Analysis and critique paper - Assignment Example al., 2012). The use of randomized controlled trial or quasi-experiment study design was one of the determinants of whether a study would be included in the analysis. A potential study for this analysis had to have studied persons from a population of equal or less than eighteen years and their parents. A qualified study for inclusion in this analysis had to have used text messaging as its impact in influencing health behavior. The analysis required potential research studies to have used pre-test and or post-test in measuring health behavior outcome. The source of a potential research study for this analysis had to be a peer-reviewed journal. Any study to be included in the analysis had to have been published in English (Militello et. al., 2012). Seven studies represented by eight articles were included in the review. Many of these studies used randomized controlled trials, one used randomized crossover design study, and another used a quasi-experimental study. Three studies concluded that reminders are effective improving the outcomes of blood glucose monitoring, insulin therapy in diabetics and anti-rejection medications in liver transplant patients. More than five other studies supported this conclusion and the use of text message intervention among the diverse population of urban parents was another conclusion that was consistent in a number of the selected studies (Militello et. al., 2012). The topic of this integrative research review was clearly defined. The search for studies and other evidence used in this review was comprehensive and unbiased and the screening of citations considered for inclusion in this review was based on explicit criteria. Included studies in this review were assessed for quality by gauging their level of evidence. The discussion and display of the findings of the included studies was

Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Questions - Essay Example Both sets of techniques are similar in that they describe the data collected, and help in evaluating the similarities and differences between the groups being studied. Both inferential and descriptive statistics help the researcher identifying and exploring the trends observed and to make sense of the relationships that are shared by the variables being studied. The main difference between descriptive statistical techniques and inferential ones is that while the descriptive statistics provide information that is limited to the data available, inferential techniques allow the researcher to verify if the observations made from the sample collected may be considered representative of the population from which the sample is drawn (Howitt &  Cramer, 2008). While descriptive statistics provide an exact description of the data used, inferential statistics provide an estimate about a larger group. Descriptive statistics are used when it is important to describe the similarities and differe nces in different groups, to explain the trends observed in the data for a particular group of subjects, and to provide information that may be used to develop hypotheses about the population (Howitt &  Cramer, 2008). ... nd value of the study) it is preferable that the researcher carefully selects a small sample and uses inferential statistics to make estimates about the population (Howitt &  Cramer, 2008). b)  Ã‚  Ã‚   What are the similarities between case studies and small-N research designs? What are the differences? When should you use case studies and small-N research designs? Case studies are usually conducted using very few participants, and could also be focused on a single participant (McBurney & White, 2009). These studies describe the experiences of the individuals included in natural, clinical or experimental conditions in great detail, and use techniques of describing data that are both qualitative and quantitative (Christensen, Johnson & Turner, 2010). Case studies are used to describe each individual studied so that the particular aspects of the variables being studied may be discussed. Typical examples of case studies would describe an individual’s pertinent background, th eir experiences and the way they respond to the chosen stimuli within a setting. While case studies are considered as a type of small-N research design, not all the Small-N studies describe the particular individuals as much as the case study. Some small-N designs are extremely quantitative and although the data collected is from a very small sample, the research study follows a very experimental design (McBurney & White, 2009). Small-N designs are useful when the researcher is trying to evaluate a rarely occurring condition or when a new treatment procedure is being tried out. Case studies, small-N studies and single participant research have been found to provide valuable insights in the fields of psychophysics, clinical research and cognitive psychology (McBurney & White, 2009). Although the main

The Matrix Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

The Matrix - Essay Example The movie borrowed heavily from eastern philosophy in general and philosophy from the Indian subcontinent in particular. The theory of the unreality of human life is something that the movie has in common with the theories of Hinduism. The illusory nature of life and its manifestations is something that the movie explores and this is true as far as the Hindu conception of life is concerned. The overarching controlling force in The Matrix is not, however, god, as it is in Hinduism. There are other influences as well, as far as The Matrix is concerned. The movie has references to Christian figures and theology as well. Neo, in the movie, is often referred to as ‘the one’, in a reference to Jesus Christ. Morpheus prepares the way for the messianic Neo, in a manner similar to that of John the Baptist. The figure of Trinity too is one that evokes associations with the Christian concept of the holy trinity. As a result of this, one may see the different characters as not themselves but as personifications of the different values that the creators of the movie feel civilization has lost as a result of technology and industrialization. The different characters can also be seen to be representations of the modern man. The movie critiques the condition of modern man whereby he is comfortable in the world of illusions that he finds himself in. The character of Cypher is one that shows how man wishes and craves for the comfort of illusions in an attempt to escape the responsibilities of real life. The lack of meaning is also something that haunts the modern man. Neo’s search for any kind of a meaning to his life is something that is referred to throughout the movie and this is what prompts him to take the risks that he does. The risks that characters like Morpheus and Trinity take during the course of the movie are also the result of this haunting need for meaning, something that is denied to the

The Roman Fever Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Roman Fever - Essay Example Background Essentially, the story was about the friendship of two women, Grace Ansley and Alida Slade. They were vacationing in Rome with their daughters, Barbara Ansley and Jenny Slade. This was the second time that the two elderly women had been to the city. They had previously visited Rome and the present travel provided a conducive for the two protagonists to reflect on their lives. A good part of it came as offshoot of what transpired in Rome many years ago. As they looked back on the past, a secret was revealed by Mrs. Slade amidst the long rivalry that hounded their friendship through the years. There was some sort of love triangle between Grace, Alida and her husband Delphin Slade in the past. It turned out that Mrs. Slade wrote a fake letter to Mrs. Ansley that supposedly came from Delphin Slade. The letter invited Grace to a tryst in the Coliseum in an effort to break her heart and cease getting in the way between Alida and Delphin as a consequence. It turned out that the t ryst actually transpired with Grace and Delphin meeting each other after the former revealed that she answered the letter and Delphin actually came. Strong Competing Women The story was a convoluted affair, but typical of the experience of the women of the American upper class during the 1930s. What makes this theme remarkable is that the story was controlled throughout by female protagonists, which depicted strong female roles. Certainly, the story was dominated by the two women and, then, there were their daughters, playing minor parts. The only physically present male in the narrative was the Italian waiter and some unseen Italian suitors who, from the statements of the protagonists, can be considered as objects of the predatory desires of their children. When the husbands were finally mentioned, they were referred to in passive roles or as tools in making a make a point, introducing an argument, and issue or a narration of experience. Mr. Horace Ansley was brought up by the two women only to be referred to as dull, spineless, boring and insufferably passive character – â€Å"just a duplicate of his wife† (12). It was obvious that his wife dominated him throughout their married life. Meanwhile, Delphin Slade was only introduced when the letter was brought up. Here, he was a facilitator or a device, if you may, in order for the desired reaction in the case of the letter to be effective. They are not unlike the Italian lovers previously mentioned. They were objects of the female rivalry and female negotiations as they navigated their relationships and pursued their objectives. They were there for a reason and such reason was determined by the women who need their respective resources and ammunition to outdo each other. There are some subtle hints provided by Wharton to support the above point of view. Delphin closely resembles the word "delphic" which is synonymous to ambiguousness and obscurity. The name Delphin may also be related to the Roman Apollo, who was the god of light and represents manly beauty. So Delphin was like the trophy - the object - by which Grace and Alida and their mothers, before them, worked hard to achieve. From the very first words of the story, this tone was already established: â€Å"the women, ladies of ripe but well-cared for middle age moved across the lofty terrace of the Roman restaurant... looked first at each other, and then down on the outspread glories of the Palatine... with the same expression of vague but

Housing and the Inclusive Society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Housing and the Inclusive Society - Essay Example In addition, private rented sector has actively participated in creating opportunities for provision of adequate homes that are accessible and convenient for in terms of prices and affordability to socially excluded groups. According to the EU, social inclusion involves a process of including people in societal activities who risk exclusion through poverty, unemployment, or homelessness; this includes exclusion from participation in decision-making processes (Spandler, 2007; European Commission, 2010). In this paper, there will be a discussion on the contribution of the private rented sector in promoting social inclusion or social exclusion, followed by an evaluation of the lesson learnt by social housing about social inclusion. Effect of Private Rented Sector on Social exclusion Private rented sector is usually a commercially operated environment such that those providing social housing must look forward to making profits. In this case, the State does not have a direct role in dicta ting housing provision, but can only provide guidelines on housing standards that landlords should meet. Therefore, it is a common phenomenon to see housing providers excluding some people based on various reasons (Hayes, Gray and Edwards, 2008; Le Grand, 2003). First, in relation to rental fees (price), allocation of housing may exclude some people based on their incomes. For instance, rental charges may be prohibitive for low-income earners, as well as those people who do not get housing benefits from their employment (Hulse and Burke, 2000). Another factor of housing allocation that promotes social exclusion is facilities allocation in housing such that the landlords usually fix heating and fuel systems within houses, which make accommodation expensive. In this case, tenants may be rebuffed from accessing housing due to extra cost of heating and fuel, or they may have to dedicate much of their resources to such costs in expense of other basic needs (Hulse and Burke, 2000). Thirdl y, social housing may discriminate disabled population from accessing housing due to the architectural design of houses. It is evident that majority of houses are constructed without consideration the accessibility of wheelchair users to the buildings; the same can be said for blind people. Fourthly, there are instances when landlord put conditions on who should be rented accommodation. For instance, landlords, driven by desire to make money and avoid the stress of demanding delayed or unpaid rent, may decide that only people from a certain level of income, certain employment sectors, race, religion or sexual orientation should be provided with housing, thus discriminating against those who do not qualify (Kleinman, 1998), despite this being unlawful. Fifthly, it is possible that some people will not have sufficient information on where to secure housing of their class and in such cases, they may be excluded from housing. For instance, potential tenants may find it difficult locatin g affordable housing especially in new and unfamiliar locations, thus finding themselves occupying houses that are beyond their reach (Hulse and Burke, 2000). Finally, private rented houses may not be equitably allocated in terms of location, with such houses being concentrated or exclusively located in certain areas. In this case, although it may be motivated by issues such as security, people who have to make

Pragmatics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Pragmatics - Essay Example But there has been an inclination to use pragmatics as a division of linguistic semiotics instead of pertaining it generally as sign systems. Another philosopher and logician named Carnap have made his own narrowing version of Morris' three branches of semiotics. It is within the field of pragmatics when the speaker receives open reference in an investigation. It is within the field of semantics when we extract from the user of the language and examine the expressions and their meanings. Finally, it is within the field of syntax when we extract from their meanings and analyze only the relations between the expressions. This trichotomy version of Morris' was the most influential (Levinson, 1983:3). Pragmatics was thought to be "the study of aspects of language that required reference to the users of the language that led to a very natural, further restriction of the term in analytical philosophy (Levinson, 1983:4). The study of deictic or indexical words such as I and you is one aspect that requires that kind of reference. There is also a view that pragmatics is the study of languages, both natural and artificial that contained indexical and deictic terms. However, an implicit version of Carnap's definition in 1960s was embraced by the movement of the generative semantics which means the investigations requiring reference to the users of a language. The history of that movement expects a historian of ideas concerning pragmatics that involves the rebirth of interest in meaning. In this period, the range of pragmatics was completely restricted to investigations that contain at least potential linguistic inferences. Definitions of pragmatics Pragmatics is the "study of language usage" while syntax is the "study of the combinatorial properties of words and their parts" and semantics is the "study of meaning" (Levinson, 1983:5). But the term pragmatics covers both context-dependent aspects of language structure and principles of language usage and understanding. There are actually various definitions of pragmatics that has continuously been improved. The first definition states that "Pragmatics is the study of those relations between language and context that are grammaticalized, or encoded in the structure of a language" (Levinson, 1983:9). In other words, pragmatics is the study of the aspects of the relationship between language and context that are useful in writing grammar. But the problem with this definition is that it excludes the principles of language usage and the very significant implications called conversational implicatures (Levinson, 1983:10). This means that the related fields such as sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics are also excluded from pragmatics. However, the only main strength of this definition is that it restricted the field to entirely linguistic matters. It handled the feature of pragmatics concerned with language usage but not the part about the principles of

Martin Luther King Jr. Headed Research Essay Example for Free

Martin Luther King Jr. Headed Research Essay Martin Luther King Jr was a well known civil rights leader in the 1960’s. He inspired many African Americans with his speeches and his non-violent movement. He had vision, courage and concern three out of the six characteristics mention by Campbell (2002) that create a leader. Even though he was well know for stopping segregation it is important to study his effective leadership. Many High School students have studied about Martin Luther King Jr. However, there is much more to King. We need to study his courage to step up and create sit-ins and protest, concern for others right and vision to tie all these in and make them possible. In addition, we need to look into these characteristics that made him a strong catalyst for change. It is the purpose of this paper to discuss the findings about the leadership and characteristics of Martin Luther King Jr. Also adding to how this leader improved the reading and writing skills to this papers author. The questions posed for the research described here are the following: 1. What important findings were made during this research? a. Why was he concerned about the rights they had? b. How did sit-ins and boycotts help King? c. What did it take to accomplish his goal? 2. Which of the leaders personal characteristics seem to be most important for his success as a catalyst for change? 3. What did the author of this paper learn about him/herself as the research, reading and writing for this assignment progress? 4. What conclusion can be drawn from this research? Findings about the Leader Martin Luther King Jr most important accomplishment was concerned about the civil rights that black people had King tried to protect the freedom of discrimination based on â€Å"gender, religion, race, national origin, age or sexual orientation.† (History Alive ch. 46) King wanted to give African Americans their rights to freedom of speech. he saw to gain equality through the world. also King wanted to stop the discrimination that was mostly based on race. this would stop the segregation that was going on and open the doors of opportunity and a better community. Much of Kings work was controversial during the time in which he lived. People opposed King because he encouraged sit-ins and boycotts. In one of the many sit-ins four college students sat in white people spots and refused to move because they were not getting served. The students dressed like they were going to church and the sit-in lasted for almost two weeks. Many white people fought the black people and the black people were arrested. They were able to get bailed for fifty dollars or do the thirty-three days in jail. Then the marches started and one girl marched up to the mayor and she said that it was unfair. Three weeks later black people got served.(History Alive.p 69) In the Montgomery Bus Boycotts was organized because of the segregated buses. The boycott lasted 328 days with no one riding the bus. Martin Luther King Jr lead the black people in this boycott. In 1955 black people had to sit in the back of the bus and white people sat in the front, sometimes black people had to give up their seats. Black boycott leaders got attacked by white people. Some of which got their homes bombed. Even though they were attacked they stuck to their non-violent system. eleven months later the segregation was considered unconstitutional. King said that, â€Å"it wasn’t a victory for them or whites, but justice and good will.† (History Alive. p 69) Kings ideas were important for the time in which he lived. People opposed King because they knew he would accomplish his goals. It took a lot of Kings time to accomplish desegregation and equality, but he was able to accomplish all the sit-ins, boycotts and marches with the help and support from his family, church and his followers who wanted the justice that King wanted to achieve. The Leader’s Personal Characteristics The three personal characteristics that, according to Campbell are necessary to become a strong exceptional leader are vision, concern and courage. These three characteristics best describe Martin Luther King Jr. King’s vision was shown through his speeches, sit-ins and boycotts. King wanted the future of his people and the future generation of young African Americans to be better and equal. He wanted to put a stop to the segregation and the discrimination that was going on through this time period. King knew that his vision would come true when these problems would come to an end. King wasn’t concern for himself only. He was concern for the entire African American community. King tried to prevent the hate that was being shown by the white people towards the black people to stop. Once this stopped King knew that the children growing up in this time period wouldn’t grow up with the same hatred shown by their parents. He wanted to put a stop to all of it so it wouldn’t spread to the young minds of the children as well as in the parents. This was all accomplished by King through his courage. He went through many risks. King not only put his life in danger, but the life of his family and his followers. The sit-ins, boycotts and marches brought hate and violence to King and his followers as well. There were times that they experienced mob attacks and bombings on their own home. All of which put King in danger for following and making justice happen. Fighting for every ones rights using non-violent movement was difficult, but courageous. King using this type of movement was significant and brave because he didn’t fight back when they would get attack and going out with this movement in mind against all those people that apposed King showed his true leadership skills. Learning about Myself as a Reader and Writer This experience has made me a better reader because it helped me improve my note taking and helped me focus on a certain topic. My note taking has become more in depth and I’m able to pull out the important part or parts of the articles were are reading. Having focused notes also helped me stay focus on this topic. I learned how to focus on a specific topic for each paragraph in my essay. Writing was a difficult part for me because I didn’t know exactly what I had to write about sometimes, or I wouldn’t have a clear sense of direction, or explanation to what I was, or had to do. This caused me a lot of confusion, so that leads into why I didn’t do so well in my papers. It was the little assignments we got that confused me the most because I didn’t find a connection from the little assignments to the bigger one. Also because we mixed how to write the paper along with finding facts and integrating sources. It would have been more helpful if we had spilt that into two different sections and having one section to do with MLK, finding the facts and integrating sources as one section and how to write the paper as another. The things I need to work on the most are writing and making connections with the assignments provided. Due to the fact that, that was my point of confusion during the assignment. Also it was writing that I scored the lowest in and this shows that I didn’t become a better writer throughout the course of this assignment Conclusion Where are we in racial equality today? what would Martin Luther King Jr think or do? Today were are not as bad in racial equality as in the time of Martin Luther King Jr, but we do experience racial hate and judgement today, mostly against Hispanics. If King was alive today, his reaction would probably be the same as when he experienced the discrimination against African Americans. He probably wouldn’t like the way people are being treated and would feel the same type of tension he did when he was a catalyst for change in the 1900’s. King would try to find away to help and also make this stop by using the same method, such as non-violent movement. King would have to change his way of solving this to get the same success he had if he tried to be a catalyst for change during this era because of the different time periods Citations Campbell, Scott. Great Leaders Grow Deep Roots The Six Characteristics of Expectional Leaders. . N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Jan 2012. . King, M.. Letter from Birmingham Jail. letter from a birmingham jail. University of Pennsylvania, 1963. Web. 8 Dec 2011. Carson, Clayborne, et. al. of the Martin Luther King Research and Education Institute. The Martin Luther King, Jr. encyclopedia. Greenwood Press: Westport, Connecticut. 2008. Goff, Brent. History Alive!: Pursuing American Ideals. Teachers Curriculum Inst, 2008. Web. .

Stephen King the Dead Zone Essay Example for Free

Stephen King the Dead Zone Essay What The Future Holds While Stephen King has rightfully garnered a reputation as a horror writer, some of his best fiction revolves around stories of everyday humanity affected by elements of the supernatural, such as the Dead Zone. After awakening from a five-year coma, John Smith has come back from the ether with a clairvoyance to see certain futures and hidden pasts of others by touch alone. Opting to use his powers for good, John is alled upon for such tasks as helping the police to catch a elusive rappist. hen he shakes hands with a political candidate at a rally, he sees a future where the candidate will start a nuclear holocaust as president. Leading John to the ultimate dilemma of potentially altering the future, and perhaps even losing his life in the process. While this is a novel about a supernatural ability, and how John lives after his accident as well as how other people around him react to him and his new ability s the theme of the novel. A reader feels for him because he comes out of his coma an altered man, alternately awed and feared by those who cannot understand what it is to receive an unwanted gift for psychic vision.. He wrestles with the possibly that assassinating the politican will lead to his probable death or his incarceration. Is the future he glimpsed even certain. The Dead Zone tackled issues to do with predestination, and what the future holds. Were things happening Just because Johnny was drawing attention to them because he thought they were going to happen, or would they have happened anyway? Should he tell people, or let nature run its course? And when he is driven to act on a vision that he thinks will affect the greater population, the big issues roll out. even if precognition probably isnt something we all need to dwell on, because King brings up other conundrums about human nature and other things for the reader to chew over.

Napoleon Populist Autocrat Administrative Structure

Napoleon Populist Autocrat Administrative Structure INTRODUCTION Napoleon Bonaparte was born in town of Ajaccio in Corsica, an island off the southern coast of France on 15th August 1769  [1]  and by then Corsica was formally under French rule. History not only remembers him as a brilliant military strategist and commander but also as ingenious and able statesman, masterful administrator and lawgiver. Napoleon graduated from Ecole Militaire in Paris in 1785 and was posted in Valence in Southern France after seven years of study in France. He came to prominence after his participation in the Siege of Toulon by forcing the British navy to evacuate the port in 1793 and after defending the National Convention from the Parisian mob he wass promoted to Rank of Commander of Army of Interior and later he on successfully led French Armies against Austrian in First Italian Campaign. After successful Italian [1796] and enchanting Egyptian [1798] Campaign; his popularity, support of military and lack of political affiliations brought him to foreground of politics and he is appointed as First Consul of France following coup of 18th-19th Brumaire on 9th-10th December 1799  [2]  . No sooner he takes the reins of France, he begins initiating reforms in various fields covering politics, civil matters, legal problems and economic situation. Instead of taking side of any political ideology or any faction, he chose a middle course by enlisting members of all the factions without considering their political affiliations but taking account of their ability and talent. This became apparent when he chose members of Council of State, Legion of Honor, Prefects, ministers and various posts in military hierarchy. This policy became the cornerstone for all appointments in France under his rule. By affecting Peace of Amiens [1802] he brought brief period of peace when France was not at war with any state. It was during this time he brought about most of his reforms, changes, creations, enlargement and growth of different institutions of France. He brought an end to political upheaval of France by silencing the different factions and later on amalgamating them into his administration. The political system envisaged made him an all-powerful and brought about centralization of political machinery. He had embarked on the civil reforms that were to make him justly famous: the pacification of La Vendee, a successful fiscal reform, a better administrative framework, overhauling of educational system, successfully conclusion of Concordat with Pope and codification of laws of France  [3]  . War again broke out in 1803, first with Britain and later other continental powers joining in the foray. Britain, Austria and Russia forming the Third Coalition threatened France, whereas Napoleon leading a coalition of Central German States inflicted crushing defeats on Austria first at Ulm [20th October 1805]  [4]  followed by the crowning victory over Austro-Russian combine at Austerlitz [2nd December 1805]  [5]  . This was followed by subsequent peace with Austrians at Pressburg and Russia at Tilsit. Prussia citing the reason of violation of neutrality of Ansbach by marching French armies declared war on France subsequently but was quickly and completely crushed in Battles of Jena and Auerstadt [1806]. On 16th July 1806  [6]  , Confederation of Rhine was established in place of Holy Roman Empire. In 1802, national vote was taken for the Life Consulate of Napoleon, the result being 3,568,000 in favour to 8,374 against  [7]  . Two years later Napoleon completed his journey to autocracy: on 3rd May 1804  [8]  Tribunate expressed the wish that Bonaparte be proclaimed hereditary Emperor of the French. The Senate and the Legislative body drew up a bill which then became an organic senates consultum. It was then submitted to the people for ratification: 3,572,000 voted yes to 2,569 nos  [9]  . Napoleon ascended the throne of France with the title of Napoleon I, Emperor of the French  [10]  . On 2nd December 1804  [11]  , he was crowned in Notre Dame Cathedral in presence of Pope Pius VII. On 17th March 1805  [12]  , he was crowned King of Italy. Subsequently, in France, a strict system of censorship was imposed and espionage system was strengthened. Whereas other parts of Empire, namely Italy, Central Germany and Holland were subjected to heavy taxes and the French reforms were imposed in these states which slowly culminated in rise of nationalism and detestation of foreign rule. Freedom of Religion was ushered during this period, first by signing of Concordat with Pope [1801] which healed the breach with the Catholic Church, then by granting equal status to Protestants as well as the Jews. Legal System was overhauled, by codifying the laws of France which dealt with matters ranging from civil to criminal laws as well as commercial law. This was a skillful blend of different laws present in France before beginning of French Revolution and the ideas of Revolution, where under the leadership of Napoleon  [13]  , utmost importance was given to simplicity, lucidity and pragmatism. Four of the finest jurists of France of the date representing Northern Customary laws along with Southern Roman influenced laws worked to produce a codification of laws which has stood the test of time and is still is a law of France. The end of war against Britain nowhere in sight, Napoleon Bonaparte declared Continental Blockade against Britain which would result in complete end of trade with Europe. The Blockade will achieve its peak by 1811, when entire Europe accepted the Continental Blockade. To enforce Continental Blockade, he conquered Naples, Portugal and later Spain. Portugal and Spain involved France in long drawn out protracted Peninsular War which would continue till restoration of Bourbon Monarchy in 1815. When France was involved in Peninsular War, Austria forming an alliance with Britain declared war on France with hope of breaking hegemony of France in Europe. Napoleon smashed the Austrians and within a month occupied Vienna. It will not be until 1812 invasion of Russia that France supremacy will be disputed and at finally Napoleon will be defeated in Battle of Waterloo and later exiled to St. Helena. It was during this period, when Napoleon brought in administrative, civil and legal reforms most of which still survive in France as living testimony to the magnificence of work done during this period for France. Napoleon followed, Everything for the French People  [14]  as his motto, and this is reflected in his brilliant conquests and practical, down to earth but still long lasting reforms which he brought in France and subsequently in the conquered territories. In long run, most of these reforms will form the bedrock of French political, legal and administrative structure which at that crucial moment of French history provided France with stable, efficient and progressive government. French people hailed all of these reforms, and most of them are still part and parcel of French administration in modified forms. LIBERAL AUTHORITARIAN ADMINISTRATION: POLITICAL COMPROMISE, FLEXIBILITY AND NATIONAL STABILITY The centralized administrative system which has prevailed in France was the handiwork of Napoleon  [15]  . Napoleon knew and very well understood the exhaustion and antipathy of people after a chaotic Revolution and an oppressive ancien regime. People tired and disgusted with bloodshed, constant change of governments, coups, political instability, extremities and constant danger of counter-revolution by royalist were longing for a stronger, efficient and stable government which would prevent decay of the system and preserve the ideals of revolution. The French during the Revolution had attacked the despotism of kings, the political inequality of many constitutions only partly free; the pride of the nobility; the domination, intolerance, and wealth of the priesthood, and the abuses of the feudal system, all of which were still rampant in most of Europe  [16]  . Napoleon understood the philosophy behind these ideals and hence went on to realize the goals and preserve the ideals of Revolution but only after ensuring political stability of France and safeguarding it from counter-revolution and internal strife. After a successfully taking over the administration of the France, he understood the situation of people and different factions. And rising above the factions and making merit as the spirit and substance of his rule he decided to usher an era of political stability, administrative efficiency and economic improvement. We have done with the romance of the Revolution: we must now commence its history. We must have eyes only for what is real and practicable in the application of principles, and not for the speculative and hypothetical. Napoleon, at Conseil detat  [17]   Above statement gives clear picture of frame of mind of Napoleon and the people presiding with him. They understanding the sentiments of the people as well as need of hour and under the guidance of Napoleon himself went on to reorganize the government and administration. POLITICAL SYSTEM: The centralized government was divided into Consulate, Senate, Corps Legislatif and Tribunate. Title IV of the Constitution of Year VII  [18]  gave plenty of powers to Napoleon who was to be First Consul. Art 41  [19]  of Constitution gave him the power to promulgates laws, appoint and dismiss at will the members of the Council of State, the ministers, the ambassadors and other foreign agents of high rank, the officers of the army and navy, the members of the local administrations, and the commissioners of the government before the tribunals. Art. 52  [20]  gave Napoleon the power to direct the council of state which was charged with drawing up projects of law and regulations of public administration and deal with difficulties which arise in administrative matters. Executive power was vested in three consuls, but, as first consul, it was effectively in Napoleons hands, the other two acting as advisers. Yet they had to work to a legislature. It rested on a very complex form of indirect election. Each commune voted a list of persons, numbering one-tenth of its citizens, deemed worthy to conduct public business. This list then proceeded to elect one-tenth of its number and these made up the departmental list. This in its turn elected a tenth of its members this was the national list. The choice of members was vested in a new body, the Senate. From this list first the Consulate appointed twenty-four members and these co-opted others to form a body of sixty. These sixty then drew up a list of 100 members for the Tribunate and 300 for the Legislature. The Tribunate could discuss or propose legislation but not vote on it whereas the Legislature could vote but not discuss it, and neither Chamber had a legislative initiative. That came from the executi ve, i.e., from Napoleon working with his Council of State. The power delivered to the executive was therefore immense, but it should not be supposed that the members of these bodies were nobodies.  [21]   A senatus consultum of August 1st forthwith proclaimed Napoleon Bonaparte Consul for Life  [22]  , which was then put to the people in a plebiscite. The official figures were 3,011,007 in favour and only 1,562 against  [23]  . Napoleon now gained few and additional powers, he had the power to nominate the other two consuls, could appoint his successor. The three legislative bodies lost practically all their powers, those of the Corps Legislatif going to the Senate, those of the Council of State to an official Cabal formed out of it; while the Tribunate was forced to debate secretly in five sections, where, as Bonaparte observed, they might jabber as they liked.  [24]   The victory of action over talk, of the executive over the legislature, of the one supremely able man over the discordant and helpless many, was now complete.  [25]  With the establishment of Empire, Napoleon became all powerful with other bodies now losing all the powers. But as a prudent and cautious statesman, he referred all his acts to people as plebiscite. In his own words, The appeal to the people has the double advantage of legalizing the prolongation of my power and of purifying the origin. In any other way it must always have appeared equivocal.  [26]  It was then submitted to the people for ratification: 3,572,000 voted yes to 2,569 nos. The Corps Legislatif disappeared and the Tribunate is not heard of after 1808. The Emperor was sole ruler.  [27]  The Senate was brought firmly under the Emperors control and thereby ceased to exist as an independent body.  [28]  The Senate had the appearance but not the reality of great power.  [29]   By now France came under extremely centralized rule, which ensured till 1815 France safety from civil strife, revolt and any form of dissension from any of the factions present in France at that time. Also, Napoleon took only those into political posts who possessed talent and merited the post irrespective of their political affiliations. This and other measures taken by him to bring Democrats, Republicans, Jacobins and later Royalists succeeded to bring them into his fold. Also creation of Legion of Honor created a class of loyalists who stood by him till the end. Centralization of Power and creating a class of loyalists brought political stability to France at turn of century when political ideologies clashed throughout Europe. ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM: Entire Republic was divided into departments and arrondissements with each department having a Prefect, Council of Prefecture and Department General Council with Prefect enjoying absolute powers and privileges in the department while conducting day to day affairs  [30]  . Napoleon while reorganizing administration completely eliminated elective system and appointing  [31]  Prefects to conduct the affairs of the Department, while sub-prefects were placed over the new arrondissements and mayors over the communes. The mayors were directly appointed by the First Consul in communes with population of over 5,000 whereas Prefects appointed the mayors for remaining communes. The administrative machinery aided in maintaining control over different areas of the Empire, along with providing administration which was lacking for a long period of time in France. Indeed, so little was there of effective self-government that France seems to have sighed with relief when order was imposed by Bonaparte in the person of a Prefect.  [32]  The Prefect was primarily the political agent of the Government.  [33]  Vigorous censorship which was imposed in whole of France along with a complex but effective network of spies under the charge of Fouche prevented political opponents a ground to protest whereby maintaining political stability. The country was honeycombed with spies and informers and watched over by a vigilant and efficient police.  [34]   Napoleon working with Cambaceres brought about the authoritarian structure in place and later in the days of Empire it was Cambaceres who worked meticulously while dealing with administrative matters. Napoleon took up the tasks of regular tax payments, law and order, education, military supply, regulation of grain trade, censorship and host of public projects which included tasks of various types from beautification of Paris with which Napoleon attached prime importance to construction of roads to connect all the cities of France with Paris and later their enlargement and maintenance. All of this was done and achieved and efficiency was insured by maintaining a network of spies, enactment of strict penal code [1810] and Napoleon always giving precedence to merit over all other considerations while making appointments. The administrative structure which though has undergone many changes but has still survived in its essence till date in France. AUTHORITARIANISM IN DAILY LIFE: EDUCATION AND RELIGION Napoleon embarked on the civil reforms that were to make him justly famous, which all had authoritarian structure in place so as to allow Napoleon to adjust them to his wishes. This is very well observed in relation to his Education Policy and Religious Policy. Law of II Floreal  [35]  which dealt with Education Policy to followed in France was passed on 1st May 1802, whereas Concordat and subsequent organic legislations which dealt with religious question were made in first years of his rule, which though provided general people with education and religious freedom hitherto unknown but gave Napoleon a supreme position over them and manipulate them to his gain. His prime aim while enacting Law of II Floreal was to bring education to common public and use it as a propaganda to improve his image and maintain control over France. Breach with religion and later persecution of religion during Revolutionary years had brought much unease throughout France, especially rural populace who were still devout, hence he decided not only to allow religion and tolerate different faiths in France but also to heal the breach with Papacy. This was achieved through Concordat and organic legislations passed by him over course of his reign. EDUCATION IN FRANCE: I want a teaching body, because such a body never dies, but transmits its organization and spirit. I want a body whose teaching is far above the fads of the moment, goes straight on even when the government is asleep, and whose administration and statutes become so national that one can never lightly resolve to meddle with them. Napoleon  [36]   Educational System in France went under complete change. Schools run by Church which were prime source of education during ancien regime and which were closed down during Revolution were not substituted by an equal structure which led to abysmal situation of education in France. Napoleon desiring to bring an end to the abysmal situation and using it as a tool to achieve his end of making the future generations of France loyal to the state and him brought about an overhaul. The new educational policy aimed at creating a new loyal group of people and to fashion them as able breadwinners, obedient citizens and enthusiastic soldiers  [37]  . Elementary schools were left to the control and supervision of the communes and of the sub-prefects  [38]  . The law of II Floreal, however, aimed at improving the secondary education  [39]  , which the Convention had attempted to give in its ecoles centrales. These were now reconstituted either as ecoles secondaires or as lycees. The former were local or even private institutions intended for the most promising pupils of the commune or group of communes; while the lycà ©es, far fewer in number, were controlled directly by the Government. In both of these schools great prominence was given to the exact and applied sciences. The training was of an almost military type, the pupils being regularly drilled, while the lessons began and ended with the roll of drums. The numbers of the lycees and of their pupils rapidly increased; but the progress of the secondary and primary schools, which could boast no such attractions, was very slow. In 1806 only 25,000 children were attending the public primary schools.  [40]   But two years later elementary and advanced instruction received a notable impetus from the establishment of the University of France  [41]  . The new University of France was admirably suited to his purpose. It was not a local university: it was the sum total of all the public [pg.297] teaching bodies of the French Empire, arranged and drilled in one vast instructional array. Elementary schools, secondary schools, lycees, as well as the more advanced colleges, all were absorbed in and controlled by this great teaching corporation, which was to inculcate the precepts of the Catholic religion, fidelity to the Emperor and to his Government  [42]  , as guarantees for the welfare of the people and the unity of France. For educational purposes, France was now divided into seventeen Academies  [43]  , which formed the local centres of the new institution. Thus, from Paris and sixteen provincial Academies, instruction was strictly organized and controlled; and within a short tim e of its institution (March, 1808), instruction of all kinds, including that of the elementary schools, showed some advance. In realm of exact and applied sciences, splendid discoveries were made and it prospered. But literature and poetry took a back seat primarily because of lack of support and secondly because of rigorous censorship. In the end it served the purpose of Emperor, created a class of loyalists and exact and applied science made a long strides and France was to remain the hub of scientific studies for another half a century. CONTROL OVER RELIGION: Napoleon in order to decrease the uneasiness among the population took steps to reconcile Papacy, Protestants and even Jews later. He intended to use religion to gain support of the people as well as wield and attach them to his rule. On 15th July 1801, he signed Concordat with Pope in which French Government recognized that the Catholic apostolic and Roman religion was the religion of the great majority of the French people. It was to be freely and publicly practiced in France, subject to the police regulations that the Government judged necessary for the public tranquility. A new division of archbishoprics and bishoprics was now made, which gave in all sixty sees to France. Napoleon enjoyed the right of nomination to them, whereupon the Pope bestowed the canonical investiture. The archbishops and bishops were all to take an oath of fidelity to the constitution. The bishops nominated the lower clerics provided that they were acceptable to the Government: all alike bound themselves to watch over governmental interests. The stability of France was further assured by a clause granting complete and permanent security to the holders of the confiscated Church lands a healing and salutary compromise which restored peac e to every village and soothed the qualms of many a troubled conscience. On its side, the State undertook to furnish suitable stipends to the clergy.  [44]   Napoleon made several laws under the plea of legislating for the police of public worship. The organic articles forbade the application of Papal bulls, or of the decree of foreign synods, to France, they further forbade the French bishops to assemble in council or synod without the permission of the Government; and this was also required for a bishop to leave his diocese, even if he were summoned to Rome. The regulation of the Protestant cult in France was a far less arduous task, Napoleon recognized two chief Protestant bodies in France, Calvinists and Lutherans, allowing them to choose their own pastors and to regulate their affairs in consistories. The pastors were to be salaried by the State, but in return the Government not only reserved its approval of every appointment, but required the Protestant bodies to have no relations whatever with any foreign Power or authority.  [45]   In the years 1806-08 the position of Jews was likewise defined, at least for all those who recognized France as their country, performed all civic duties, and recognized all the laws of the State. In consideration of their paying full taxes and performing military service, they received official protection and their rabbis governmental support.  [46]   Napoleon succeeded to bring the different religious institutions under government control and even controlling and regulating their affairs, so as to prevent them from rising up against the government and at the same time making people content. REFORM OF JUDICIAL SYSTEM I will go down to history with the Code in my hand. Napoleon  [47]   Law for Reorganization of Judicial System  [48]  was passed on 18th March 1800 making judiciary a simple hierarchy of courts. At lowermost level, i.e., for every commune there was a Tribunal of First Instance which was presided over by Justice of Peace which dealt with civil as well as correctional police matters.  [49]  Every department had a Criminal Tribunal which had jurisdiction over all the criminal and correctional police matters in the department.  [50]  Twenty-nine Tribunals of appeal were established throughout France to hear civil and commercial matter from Tribunal of First Instance.  [51]  Tribunal of Cassation sat in Paris which was the final court where appeal could be made from Criminal Tribunal or Tribunal of Appeal which was composed of forty-eight judges.  [52]   A single code for France was the dream of King Louis XI in the fifteenth century, of Dumoulin (1500-66) and Brisson in the sixteenth, of Colbert and Lamoignin in the seventeenth, and of DAguesseau in the eighteenth. The four last named made substantial contributions toward such a project Brisson, by his compilation of the ordinances in force under Henry III, Colbert and Lamoignon, through a more celebrated ordinances bearing the name of Louis XIV, and DAguesseau, whose ordinances on wills, gifts, and entails appeared between 1731 and 1747, and were through codifications.  [53]  Before the outbreak of Revolution, Voltaire had tersely commented on law and order situation of France, stating Man did not often change his horse, as many as he changed law while travelling through France, which correctly gave the picture of law and order situation before Revolution. The parlements, being upholders of local customary laws proved another obstacle towards codification of law. During the Re volution, revolutionaries made many attempts to codify the laws to bring uniformity throughout France, but failed and when Napoleon took power, banditry was on rise and law and order situation had deteriorated. Napoleon with an aim to bring stability gave prime importance to reorganizing the judicial system and codifying the laws. The draft